Validity of Brain Scanning Images to Study Human Behaviour

Validity of Brain Scanning Images to Study Human Behaviour The study of psychological phenomenon has shifted to focus more on brain activity. Critically evaluate the validity of using brain scanning images to study human behaviour Behavioural neuroscience is a term primarily developed in the early twentieth century and refers to the brain processes and physiological functions that produce human behaviour (Robinson et al, 2005). Pioneers of physiological psychology such as Karl Lashley (1950) surgically produced brain lesions in rats to observe learning and memory alterations, which resulted in many other psychologists mapping the parts of the brain involved, and relating it to human behaviour. This human behaviour, defined as the actions and responses humans portray (Holt et al, 2012), is extensively observed in human brain activity today, and can be monitored using brain scanning images. Some scanning images work by monitoring the electrical conduction of axons to different regions of the brain, glucose and oxygen levels in the brain and blood flow, whilst others visualize the brain structure using tissue density, and all can be used to pinpoint specific behavioural responses (Jezzard, Matthews Smith, 2001). These imaging techniques present processes that cannot be witnessed by the human eye and can distinguish what parts of the brain are at their most active during different stimulations (bremner, 2005). The increase of brain scanning images makes it one of the most popularly used neuropsychological tools in the field of biological psychology, and has also enthused the creation and promotion of new areas of psychology such as cognitive neuroscience. Yet there is still debate as to how successful brain scanning images are at locating and determining different human behaviours. This essay will depict different types of brain scanning images, their uses in relation to human behaviour, debate how successful or unsuccessful these uses are and hopefully establish a direction to the future of these neuropsychological tools. The brain is a very complex and active organ, using around 25% of the human body oxygen and 70% of its obtained glucose (Simon, 2007). Due to this complexity and high metabolic rate neuropsychologists want to establish why the brain uses so much energy and where it is consumed during different behavioural events. Originally, single-cell recordings were the most popularly used type of brain scanning images, pinpointing specific neuronal networks used when processing stimuli in relation to behaviour (Holt et al, 2012). For example Electroencephalograph (EEG) can help distinguish whether an ADHD sufferer has an inattentive or hyperactive subtype by monitoring different brain wavelengths (Pedersen, 2013). Clark, Barry, McCarthy and Selikowitz (1998) monitored children in various settings. They were aged 8-12 years and suffered with ADHD. Using EEG measures, the researchers found that the children had substantially higher levels of theta waves compared to the control group. In addition, t he children with an inattentive type of ADHD brain waves were closer related to the control group then that of the hyperactive subtype. This demonstrates how EEG measures are a successful non-invasive brain scanning technique, that can be used in many environments and reveals how simple brain scanning images can be used to determine different human behaviours. However EEG measures can be somewhat non-specific and need complex data analysis to help decipher the readings. Furthermore, establishing the amount of brain states an EEG reading can identify would increase the techniques validity (Schlà ¶gl, Slater Pfurtscheller, 2002). SOMETHING TO LINK Static imaging techniques such as Computed tomography (CT) or Computerized axial tomography (CAT) are used to present a visual structure of the brain and can be useful in detecting deterioration or injury of the brain (Demitri, 2007). They work by using X-ray technology to take pictures of sections of the brain, layering the brains interior from multiple angles. They are 100 times more accurate than normal X-rays and can be used on other bodily organs (CT scan, 2013). This non-invasive method can be used to identify brain abnormalities in abnormal human behaviour such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Pearlson, Garbacz, Moberg, Ahn, and Depaulo (1985) used CAT scans in order to establish a significant lateral ventricular enlargement in patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder compared to a control group. Additionally, Bigler, Hubler, Cullum, and Turkheimer (1985) used CAT scans to observe changes in the brain structure of those patients with alzheimers disease and those w ithout. Results portrayed an intellectual decline and memory impairment for Alzheimer disease sufferers. Using these kinds of static brain imaging techniques can help establish a physical determent for human behaviour in relation to brain activity and can also give clinical validity to the technique because it is used not only on the brain but also on other organs (Quiroz et al, 2005). Wedding and Gudeman (1980) even suggest that CT scanning will be an ‘invaluable’ tool in the mapping of the functionality of the brain. However there are disadvantages with using static brain imaging, such as the cost of procedure, the risk of radiation exposure and the relatively poor detail the scan produces (Gould, Cummings, Rabuzzi, Reed Chung, 1977). In terms of identifying human behaviour, static brain images can only give a physical view of brain abnormalities so it is not always clear what is actually responsible for behaviour. Instead, dynamic brain scanning images can be used to investigate what is going on internally in the brain when humans experience behaviour. Positron-emission tomography (PET) scans use invasive techniques to measure brain activity such as metabolism, blood flow and neurotransmitter activity (Holt et al, 2012). A radioactive component is inserted into the blood and due to the decaying nature of this component; it is possible to use a detector to observe where the brain is using the most energy (Brain scanning images, 2014). For example Mayberg et al (1999) used PET scans to monitor stimulated feelings of sadness in depressed patients compared to recovered patients. They found that one specific area of the brain had increased blood flow in depressed patients compared to another area that had increased blood flow with the recovered patients. They go on to suggest these types of findings are significant for the use of medical treatments for such disorders, because the PET scan could ide ntify a specific brain region ‘responsible’ for the sadness felt in depression. Furthermore, Jones (2010) describes the work carried out by Dr Ned.H Kalin using PET scans on Anxious Temperament (AT) rhesus monkeys. The central nucleus region of the amygdala portrayed increased blood flow, suggesting an increase in emotion and fear of these types of monkeys. PET scans can be very useful in identifying whereabouts in the brain the most energy is being used when displaying certain behaviours. However, Lubezky et al (2007) also found that PET scanning can have interference when used on patients also having treatment for chemotherapy, which suggests PET scans are not always a successful tool in clinical research. This type of scanning can be very time consuming and the resolution of the brain structure is not as high compared to other brain scanning techniques, which means the functional information retrieved from these scans cannot always be accessed (Positron Emission Tomo graphy, 2013). This means establishing a cause for human behaviour is more difficult and not as concise, so PET scans may not be the most successful choice when researching human behaviour. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used to create clear detailed pictures of the brain structure, a lot like CT and CAT scans. Sometimes a dye is injected into the vein to help contrast the picture and images are around 1/10 the size of a CT scan (Rosen, 2007). However, in recent years MRI advancing has resulted in Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) that can produce dynamic pictures of blood flow in the brain instantly (Holt et al, 2014). This has made a huge impact in the neuropsychological field of establishing what parts of the brain react to different behaviours as it has allowed researchers to present stimuli and observe the results from the stimuli within seconds of it occurring (Jezzard, Matthews Smith, 2001). A wealth of research has been carried out to investigate this, for example Eisenberger, Lieberman and Williams (2003) used fMRI scans to investigate whether participants reacted to psychological pain in the same way as physical pain. Using a social exclusion task they found a significant relationship between parts of the brain activated during physical pain, in relation to emotional pain. Mastena, Morellib and Eisenbergerb (2011) investigated the effects on brain activity of participants feeling empathy towards an excluded victim, and found that participants with more empathetic personality traits had higher levels of activation in metalizing regions and social pain-related regions of their brain. This in turn led them to carry out more pro-social behaviour towards the victim of exclusion. Horn, Dolan, Elliott, Deakin and Woodruff (2003) also explored impulsivity in relation to aggression, suicide and violent behaviour. Using fMRI scans they found that participants who had greater scores on impulsivity scales had higher activation of paralimbic areas in the brain during response inhibition. Participants with lower scores on impulsivity therefore had lower activation levels in this particular part of the brain. It is clear to see how suc cessful fMRI scans can be at determining what parts of the brain are affected by different human behaviours due to the quick and detailed resolution of the scan. They are also non-invasive with the absence of radiation, making this method a more suitable and reusable option for patients (Devlin, 2007). However, in terms of studying human behaviour, there are statistical pitfalls when using fMRI scans, for example inappropriate interpretations and misunderstandings (Hughes, 2014). For example Watson (2008) describes Marco Iacoboni study investigating swing voters. They were shown political words that they didn’t agree with, such as ‘democratic’, and the amygdala was activated, indicating feelings of anxiety and disgust. However other areas of the brain also became stimulated, in association with reward, desire and connectedness, which presents an opposite interaction of what the participants are feeling, which questions the validity of the fMRI scan all together. Nevertheless, fMRI scans are currently being used in more advancing fields than ever before. The reliability of the scans has even been tested to find out whether they should be used in court as evidence of past memories (Harmon-Courage, 2010). On the other hand, many researchers would suggest it would be more beneficial in terms of research in human behaviour to instead focus on the behavioural and social techniques that could be used to understand behaviour, rather than biological observations. For example Watson (1913) described all behaviour as observable, and any unobservable phenomenon was not proper learnt experiences, and so could therefore not be measured. Yet due to the advancing field of brain scanning techniques, new areas such as cognitive neuroscience have become apparent, and use brain scanning images as a forefront for their research. Cabeza and Nyberg (2000) Analysed regional activations across cognitive domains and found that several brain regions, including the ce rebellum, are engaged by a variety of cognitive challenges, which again supports the use of brain scanning techniques in new fields to establish and understanding of human behaviour. Overall, brain scanning techniques are clearly confidently used in human behaviour research. There are many options as to which type of brain scanning technique to use so researchers can choose the method best suited to them, whether it is observing brain structure, or researching the dynamic function of the brain. That is not to say that there are not drawbacks with using brain scanning techniques. There are practical issues like the cost, and with some types of brain scanning techniques, the exposure to radiation that the participant must experience limits the amount of times a scan can be taken. Also, as explained above, it can also be quite difficult to interpret the scanning image itself and researchers cannot be completely confident that a certain part of the brain is responsible for a certain behaviour. However, the valid use of brain scanning images continues to increase, with new areas of neuropsychology producing new research outcomes, and the increased usage of them in cli nical fields. Finally, brain scanning techniques in relation to human behaviour can be said to be relatively valid because of the abundance of rich and detailed findings that they gather.

Government Health Care

Jerry Trevorrow English 0900-11 Essay #2 Government Healthcare The overwhelming majority of Americans agree that reform of our healthcare system is necessary; debate continues to rage over what specific type of reform we need. Imagine having uk/the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-governments-providing-free-health-care/">free health care, and never to worry about getting the healthcare you need. This being available would give people a chance to live a little better. Having the government provide healthcare would be better for Americans. This type of health insurance would help the unemployed as well as the employed.The price of health insurance is increasingly costing the American people thousands of dollars on premiums. The quality of medical coverage in the United States is among the best in the Nation. With free health care American’s are able to see a doctor early so that they can help prevent major problems like cancer, HIV or other major illnesses. The positive side of g overnment healthcare is no exclusions for pre-existing conditions. You are insured from the day you are born. No bankruptcies due to medical bills.No deaths due to lack of health insurance or Cheaper , More affordable; everybody in nobody out. Save taxpayers billions a year in bloated corporate administrative and executive compensation costs. Government-funded healthcare would provide access to medical services for all uninsured. Lower costs of government healthcare will cause insurance coverage to be significantly more accessible to millions of individuals and businesses. Doctors and other medical professionals can focus on patient care, and no longer need to spend hundreds of wasted hours annually dealing with insurance companies.Patients too, under government healthcare would never need to fritter inordinate amounts of frustrating time haggling with insurance companies. Other important positives of government-funded healthcare include: 47 million Americans lacked healthcare insur ance coverage as of the 2008 presidential campaign season. Soaring unemployment since then have caused the ranks of the uninsured to swell past 50 million in mid-2009. Conservatives and Libertarians oppose U. S. overnment healthcare mainly because they don't believe that it's a proper role of government to provide social services to private citizens. Instead, conservatives believe that healthcare coverage should continue to be provided solely by private-sector for-profit insurance corporations or possibly by non-profit entities. In 2009, a handful of Congressional Republicans have suggested that perhaps the uninsured could obtain limited medical services via a voucher system and tax credits for low-income families. This is like what Minnesota care is about.Low income or no income you can get Minnesota care. You might have a monthly fee for the policy or have to pay three dollar co-pay for everything. You are only allowed to use up to ten thousand dollars of medical care for a year a t a time. From the patient's perspective, negatives of government-funded healthcare might include. Decrease in flexibility for patients to freely choose from among the vast types of drugs, treatment options, and surgical procedures offered today by higher-priced doctors and hospitals.On June 18, 2009, Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi told the press, â€Å"I have every confidence that we will have a public option coming out of the House of Representatives — that will be one that is actuarially sound, administratively self-sufficient, one that contributes as to competition, does not eliminate competition. † Less potential doctors may opt to enter the medical profession due to decreased opportunities for highly compensated positions. Fewer doctors coupled with skyrocketing demand for doctors could lead to a shortage of medical professionals, and to longer waiting periods for appointments.The American Medical Association, which represents 29% of U. S. doctors, opposes any government insurance plan mainly because doctors' reimbursement rates will be less than those from most private sector plans. Not all doctors oppose government-funded healthcare, though. There are many other countries, which have government healthcare and are doing well with it. The percentages of longer life expectancy are better in those countries compare to the U. S. Canada’s life expectancy is 81. 3 percent; compare to the U. S is 78. 1 percent. Physicians per 1000 people as follows; Canada is 2. compare to the U. S is at 2. 4. There is not much difference from what we have now compared to government healthcare in services and quality of care per patience. We will benefit of living longer with government healthcare, as we know we are the lowest in life expectancy to many other countries. The government controlling anything should be healthcare. Instead of the other issues they are regulating now. Having the governments provide healthcare would be the best thing for all Am erican’s. I feel we would greatly benefit from this and become more of a healthier country.

Training and Workouts

Erick Johnson is an endurance athlete who trains for the 3,000 metre race.   His training schedule involves steady pace runs, anaerobic threshold training, cruise intervals, pace surge training and repetition training.   Interval training and speed endurance also form part of his weekly workouts (Rogers, 2000).   The steady pace runs are aimed at increasing running efficiency, developing the cardiovascular system and improving the process of capillarization. For him to be able to tolerate and buffer the rise in lactic acid during running, Erick performs anaerobic threshold training.   Repetition training aims at   developing the pace consciousness of the athlete while pace-surging training involves alternating steady-pace runs with surges r bursts off speed running.   This helps him to be able to adjust to the shifts in the pace during a competition. All these components of his training are also aimed at increasing his endurance by lowering the rate at which lactate acid builds up and enhancing oxygen transportation. The exercises have the effect of increasing his metabolism to higher levels than that of the average human being. A weekly work out for Erick would be as follows, on a Monday he performs 20 minutes of aerobic threshold training run, followed by build ups and a period of cool-down.   On Tuesday he does an easy run of the 3000 metre race.   On Wednesday he does negative split runs four times, after which he does build-ups.   When doing the negative split run, he starts with five minutes warm up that involves walking briskly and jogging lightly. He then   runs at a moderate pace for ten minutes and increase his pace over the next ten minutes then he cools down for five minutes.   (http://outside.away.com/outside/fracture/2000609/negative-split-workout.html).   On Thursdays he does five repetitions of the actual race pace but that have been broken down to 900metre races.   Erick does the easy run and practices accelerations which means he is practising to increase his speed on Fridays.   On Saturdays he does his best average speed for the race in 1000metre intervals then on Sundays he does a long run. His training schedule sometimes changes by the week especially if a competition is close but with basically the same activities though at different frequencies and intervals. Daily Diet Breakfast 2 slices whole wheat toast Grape fruit 1 poached egg 1 tsp butter or vegetable margarine or honey Lunch 1 cup clear vegetable soup sprinkled with fresh herbs Brown rice 1 cup beans Green salad in season Dinner 2 slices meat steaks with vegetable Crisp bread 25g cottage cheese with fresh herbs 75g fresh fruit salad Snacks 1 cup apple juice, canned  ½ cup raw black berries 1 piece fruit cake 3 fig bar cookies Crackles regular wheat  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (USDA, 2005) The B complex vitamins are important for an endurance athlete especially because they have increased needs for vitamins due to the higher metabolism rates that are above the normal population.   The B complex vitamins are also involved in formation of red blood cells.   If deficient, red blood cells formation is compromised leading to fewer or poorly formed red blood cells resulting in decreased capacity for oxygen transportation which would compromise the endurance of the athlete (Moore, 2004) Deficiencies of the B complex vitamin may result in decreased capacity for endurance.   Vitamin B6 takes part in different processes of metabolism involving proteins and glycogen.   A high protein diet will thus result in increased need for vitamin B6.   Vitamin B12 is necessary for the formation of red blood cells and is also important to ensure their normal functioning.   Folic acid is also a requirement for red blood cell formation and metabolism of amino acids (Moore, 2004). References Rogers J, 2000 USA Track and Field Coaching Manual, Human Kinetics, ISBN 0880116048 Moore J, 2004 Vitamins, USMS retrieved from http://www.usms.org/articles/articledispaly.php?a=77 USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20   

The Intersectionality Of Race And Sex - 1844 Words

Dashanna Cooke Mr. Jones ENGL 110AQ 3/19/2017 The Intersectionality of Race and Sex in How to Make Love to a Negro Without Getting Tired Dany Laferrià ¨re was born Windsor Klà ©ber Laferrià ¨re in Port-au-Prince, Haiti on April 13, 1953. His father, the mayor of Port-au-Prince and under-secretary of state for trade, was forced into exile which left Laferrià ¨re and his mother. Fearing reprisals, Laferrià ¨re’s mother entrusted her four-year-old son to his grandmother at the Haitian seaside town of Petit-Goave. Laferrià ¨re, who grew up during the Duvalier regime, became a journalist and a radio broadcaster. In 1976 after the assassination of his colleague, with whom he was working on a story with, Laferrià ¨re fled Haiti and immigrated to Canada after†¦show more content†¦We see the world outside the apartment from the narrator’s wanderings through the streets of Montrà ©al. The unidentified narrator is writing a novel about his experiences with hopes that it would lead to him having fame and fortune. How to Make Love revisits the subjects of history, race, slavery, racism, class, and the definition of what constitutes a Negro. The title of the novel itself explores the way the Western world stereotypes the black man’s body as a sexual object, both terrible and mesmerizing in its animal-like savagery. Laferrià ¨re’s novel, How to Make Love to a Negro without Getting Tired, approaches the thematic exploration of racial and sexual tension, exclusion and alienation, class consciousness, and the multiplicity of exploitation. Laferrià ¨re draws an intersection of race and sexuality through satirical humor and pushing it to its absurd and comical consequences. The narrator is aware of the sexual stereotypes that are unconsciously labeled on him as with the almost self-righteous, obsession that white women seem to be fascinated by him, but he does not necessarily condemn nor shy away from these stereotypes. On certain occasions, it seems like the narrator revels in being seen as something exotic to the white McGill girls that he chases. In a particular passage, the narrator basks in the act of political rebellion he seems to be committing by sleeping with white women. AsShow MoreRelatedIntersectionality Essay727 Words   |  3 PagesI will try to explain intersectionality. First of all you need to know what intersectionality is. Intersectionality is a theoretical framework which explains violence or discrimination against humans. Now I will give you an example and then try to connect it to intersectionality. I will use an example of spider web to explain this theory. This example will give you some idea about intersectionality. 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