Validity of Brain Scanning Images to Study Human Behaviour

Validity of Brain Scanning Images to Study Human Behaviour The study of psychological phenomenon has shifted to focus more on brain activity. Critically evaluate the validity of using brain scanning images to study human behaviour Behavioural neuroscience is a term primarily developed in the early twentieth century and refers to the brain processes and physiological functions that produce human behaviour (Robinson et al, 2005). Pioneers of physiological psychology such as Karl Lashley (1950) surgically produced brain lesions in rats to observe learning and memory alterations, which resulted in many other psychologists mapping the parts of the brain involved, and relating it to human behaviour. This human behaviour, defined as the actions and responses humans portray (Holt et al, 2012), is extensively observed in human brain activity today, and can be monitored using brain scanning images. Some scanning images work by monitoring the electrical conduction of axons to different regions of the brain, glucose and oxygen levels in the brain and blood flow, whilst others visualize the brain structure using tissue density, and all can be used to pinpoint specific behavioural responses (Jezzard, Matthews Smith, 2001). These imaging techniques present processes that cannot be witnessed by the human eye and can distinguish what parts of the brain are at their most active during different stimulations (bremner, 2005). The increase of brain scanning images makes it one of the most popularly used neuropsychological tools in the field of biological psychology, and has also enthused the creation and promotion of new areas of psychology such as cognitive neuroscience. Yet there is still debate as to how successful brain scanning images are at locating and determining different human behaviours. This essay will depict different types of brain scanning images, their uses in relation to human behaviour, debate how successful or unsuccessful these uses are and hopefully establish a direction to the future of these neuropsychological tools. The brain is a very complex and active organ, using around 25% of the human body oxygen and 70% of its obtained glucose (Simon, 2007). Due to this complexity and high metabolic rate neuropsychologists want to establish why the brain uses so much energy and where it is consumed during different behavioural events. Originally, single-cell recordings were the most popularly used type of brain scanning images, pinpointing specific neuronal networks used when processing stimuli in relation to behaviour (Holt et al, 2012). For example Electroencephalograph (EEG) can help distinguish whether an ADHD sufferer has an inattentive or hyperactive subtype by monitoring different brain wavelengths (Pedersen, 2013). Clark, Barry, McCarthy and Selikowitz (1998) monitored children in various settings. They were aged 8-12 years and suffered with ADHD. Using EEG measures, the researchers found that the children had substantially higher levels of theta waves compared to the control group. In addition, t he children with an inattentive type of ADHD brain waves were closer related to the control group then that of the hyperactive subtype. This demonstrates how EEG measures are a successful non-invasive brain scanning technique, that can be used in many environments and reveals how simple brain scanning images can be used to determine different human behaviours. However EEG measures can be somewhat non-specific and need complex data analysis to help decipher the readings. Furthermore, establishing the amount of brain states an EEG reading can identify would increase the techniques validity (Schlà ¶gl, Slater Pfurtscheller, 2002). SOMETHING TO LINK Static imaging techniques such as Computed tomography (CT) or Computerized axial tomography (CAT) are used to present a visual structure of the brain and can be useful in detecting deterioration or injury of the brain (Demitri, 2007). They work by using X-ray technology to take pictures of sections of the brain, layering the brains interior from multiple angles. They are 100 times more accurate than normal X-rays and can be used on other bodily organs (CT scan, 2013). This non-invasive method can be used to identify brain abnormalities in abnormal human behaviour such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Pearlson, Garbacz, Moberg, Ahn, and Depaulo (1985) used CAT scans in order to establish a significant lateral ventricular enlargement in patients with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder compared to a control group. Additionally, Bigler, Hubler, Cullum, and Turkheimer (1985) used CAT scans to observe changes in the brain structure of those patients with alzheimers disease and those w ithout. Results portrayed an intellectual decline and memory impairment for Alzheimer disease sufferers. Using these kinds of static brain imaging techniques can help establish a physical determent for human behaviour in relation to brain activity and can also give clinical validity to the technique because it is used not only on the brain but also on other organs (Quiroz et al, 2005). Wedding and Gudeman (1980) even suggest that CT scanning will be an ‘invaluable’ tool in the mapping of the functionality of the brain. However there are disadvantages with using static brain imaging, such as the cost of procedure, the risk of radiation exposure and the relatively poor detail the scan produces (Gould, Cummings, Rabuzzi, Reed Chung, 1977). In terms of identifying human behaviour, static brain images can only give a physical view of brain abnormalities so it is not always clear what is actually responsible for behaviour. Instead, dynamic brain scanning images can be used to investigate what is going on internally in the brain when humans experience behaviour. Positron-emission tomography (PET) scans use invasive techniques to measure brain activity such as metabolism, blood flow and neurotransmitter activity (Holt et al, 2012). A radioactive component is inserted into the blood and due to the decaying nature of this component; it is possible to use a detector to observe where the brain is using the most energy (Brain scanning images, 2014). For example Mayberg et al (1999) used PET scans to monitor stimulated feelings of sadness in depressed patients compared to recovered patients. They found that one specific area of the brain had increased blood flow in depressed patients compared to another area that had increased blood flow with the recovered patients. They go on to suggest these types of findings are significant for the use of medical treatments for such disorders, because the PET scan could ide ntify a specific brain region ‘responsible’ for the sadness felt in depression. Furthermore, Jones (2010) describes the work carried out by Dr Ned.H Kalin using PET scans on Anxious Temperament (AT) rhesus monkeys. The central nucleus region of the amygdala portrayed increased blood flow, suggesting an increase in emotion and fear of these types of monkeys. PET scans can be very useful in identifying whereabouts in the brain the most energy is being used when displaying certain behaviours. However, Lubezky et al (2007) also found that PET scanning can have interference when used on patients also having treatment for chemotherapy, which suggests PET scans are not always a successful tool in clinical research. This type of scanning can be very time consuming and the resolution of the brain structure is not as high compared to other brain scanning techniques, which means the functional information retrieved from these scans cannot always be accessed (Positron Emission Tomo graphy, 2013). This means establishing a cause for human behaviour is more difficult and not as concise, so PET scans may not be the most successful choice when researching human behaviour. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used to create clear detailed pictures of the brain structure, a lot like CT and CAT scans. Sometimes a dye is injected into the vein to help contrast the picture and images are around 1/10 the size of a CT scan (Rosen, 2007). However, in recent years MRI advancing has resulted in Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) that can produce dynamic pictures of blood flow in the brain instantly (Holt et al, 2014). This has made a huge impact in the neuropsychological field of establishing what parts of the brain react to different behaviours as it has allowed researchers to present stimuli and observe the results from the stimuli within seconds of it occurring (Jezzard, Matthews Smith, 2001). A wealth of research has been carried out to investigate this, for example Eisenberger, Lieberman and Williams (2003) used fMRI scans to investigate whether participants reacted to psychological pain in the same way as physical pain. Using a social exclusion task they found a significant relationship between parts of the brain activated during physical pain, in relation to emotional pain. Mastena, Morellib and Eisenbergerb (2011) investigated the effects on brain activity of participants feeling empathy towards an excluded victim, and found that participants with more empathetic personality traits had higher levels of activation in metalizing regions and social pain-related regions of their brain. This in turn led them to carry out more pro-social behaviour towards the victim of exclusion. Horn, Dolan, Elliott, Deakin and Woodruff (2003) also explored impulsivity in relation to aggression, suicide and violent behaviour. Using fMRI scans they found that participants who had greater scores on impulsivity scales had higher activation of paralimbic areas in the brain during response inhibition. Participants with lower scores on impulsivity therefore had lower activation levels in this particular part of the brain. It is clear to see how suc cessful fMRI scans can be at determining what parts of the brain are affected by different human behaviours due to the quick and detailed resolution of the scan. They are also non-invasive with the absence of radiation, making this method a more suitable and reusable option for patients (Devlin, 2007). However, in terms of studying human behaviour, there are statistical pitfalls when using fMRI scans, for example inappropriate interpretations and misunderstandings (Hughes, 2014). For example Watson (2008) describes Marco Iacoboni study investigating swing voters. They were shown political words that they didn’t agree with, such as ‘democratic’, and the amygdala was activated, indicating feelings of anxiety and disgust. However other areas of the brain also became stimulated, in association with reward, desire and connectedness, which presents an opposite interaction of what the participants are feeling, which questions the validity of the fMRI scan all together. Nevertheless, fMRI scans are currently being used in more advancing fields than ever before. The reliability of the scans has even been tested to find out whether they should be used in court as evidence of past memories (Harmon-Courage, 2010). On the other hand, many researchers would suggest it would be more beneficial in terms of research in human behaviour to instead focus on the behavioural and social techniques that could be used to understand behaviour, rather than biological observations. For example Watson (1913) described all behaviour as observable, and any unobservable phenomenon was not proper learnt experiences, and so could therefore not be measured. Yet due to the advancing field of brain scanning techniques, new areas such as cognitive neuroscience have become apparent, and use brain scanning images as a forefront for their research. Cabeza and Nyberg (2000) Analysed regional activations across cognitive domains and found that several brain regions, including the ce rebellum, are engaged by a variety of cognitive challenges, which again supports the use of brain scanning techniques in new fields to establish and understanding of human behaviour. Overall, brain scanning techniques are clearly confidently used in human behaviour research. There are many options as to which type of brain scanning technique to use so researchers can choose the method best suited to them, whether it is observing brain structure, or researching the dynamic function of the brain. That is not to say that there are not drawbacks with using brain scanning techniques. There are practical issues like the cost, and with some types of brain scanning techniques, the exposure to radiation that the participant must experience limits the amount of times a scan can be taken. Also, as explained above, it can also be quite difficult to interpret the scanning image itself and researchers cannot be completely confident that a certain part of the brain is responsible for a certain behaviour. However, the valid use of brain scanning images continues to increase, with new areas of neuropsychology producing new research outcomes, and the increased usage of them in cli nical fields. Finally, brain scanning techniques in relation to human behaviour can be said to be relatively valid because of the abundance of rich and detailed findings that they gather.

Government Health Care

Jerry Trevorrow English 0900-11 Essay #2 Government Healthcare The overwhelming majority of Americans agree that reform of our healthcare system is necessary; debate continues to rage over what specific type of reform we need. Imagine having uk/the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-governments-providing-free-health-care/">free health care, and never to worry about getting the healthcare you need. This being available would give people a chance to live a little better. Having the government provide healthcare would be better for Americans. This type of health insurance would help the unemployed as well as the employed.The price of health insurance is increasingly costing the American people thousands of dollars on premiums. The quality of medical coverage in the United States is among the best in the Nation. With free health care American’s are able to see a doctor early so that they can help prevent major problems like cancer, HIV or other major illnesses. The positive side of g overnment healthcare is no exclusions for pre-existing conditions. You are insured from the day you are born. No bankruptcies due to medical bills.No deaths due to lack of health insurance or Cheaper , More affordable; everybody in nobody out. Save taxpayers billions a year in bloated corporate administrative and executive compensation costs. Government-funded healthcare would provide access to medical services for all uninsured. Lower costs of government healthcare will cause insurance coverage to be significantly more accessible to millions of individuals and businesses. Doctors and other medical professionals can focus on patient care, and no longer need to spend hundreds of wasted hours annually dealing with insurance companies.Patients too, under government healthcare would never need to fritter inordinate amounts of frustrating time haggling with insurance companies. Other important positives of government-funded healthcare include: 47 million Americans lacked healthcare insur ance coverage as of the 2008 presidential campaign season. Soaring unemployment since then have caused the ranks of the uninsured to swell past 50 million in mid-2009. Conservatives and Libertarians oppose U. S. overnment healthcare mainly because they don't believe that it's a proper role of government to provide social services to private citizens. Instead, conservatives believe that healthcare coverage should continue to be provided solely by private-sector for-profit insurance corporations or possibly by non-profit entities. In 2009, a handful of Congressional Republicans have suggested that perhaps the uninsured could obtain limited medical services via a voucher system and tax credits for low-income families. This is like what Minnesota care is about.Low income or no income you can get Minnesota care. You might have a monthly fee for the policy or have to pay three dollar co-pay for everything. You are only allowed to use up to ten thousand dollars of medical care for a year a t a time. From the patient's perspective, negatives of government-funded healthcare might include. Decrease in flexibility for patients to freely choose from among the vast types of drugs, treatment options, and surgical procedures offered today by higher-priced doctors and hospitals.On June 18, 2009, Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi told the press, â€Å"I have every confidence that we will have a public option coming out of the House of Representatives — that will be one that is actuarially sound, administratively self-sufficient, one that contributes as to competition, does not eliminate competition. † Less potential doctors may opt to enter the medical profession due to decreased opportunities for highly compensated positions. Fewer doctors coupled with skyrocketing demand for doctors could lead to a shortage of medical professionals, and to longer waiting periods for appointments.The American Medical Association, which represents 29% of U. S. doctors, opposes any government insurance plan mainly because doctors' reimbursement rates will be less than those from most private sector plans. Not all doctors oppose government-funded healthcare, though. There are many other countries, which have government healthcare and are doing well with it. The percentages of longer life expectancy are better in those countries compare to the U. S. Canada’s life expectancy is 81. 3 percent; compare to the U. S is 78. 1 percent. Physicians per 1000 people as follows; Canada is 2. compare to the U. S is at 2. 4. There is not much difference from what we have now compared to government healthcare in services and quality of care per patience. We will benefit of living longer with government healthcare, as we know we are the lowest in life expectancy to many other countries. The government controlling anything should be healthcare. Instead of the other issues they are regulating now. Having the governments provide healthcare would be the best thing for all Am erican’s. I feel we would greatly benefit from this and become more of a healthier country.

Training and Workouts

Erick Johnson is an endurance athlete who trains for the 3,000 metre race.   His training schedule involves steady pace runs, anaerobic threshold training, cruise intervals, pace surge training and repetition training.   Interval training and speed endurance also form part of his weekly workouts (Rogers, 2000).   The steady pace runs are aimed at increasing running efficiency, developing the cardiovascular system and improving the process of capillarization. For him to be able to tolerate and buffer the rise in lactic acid during running, Erick performs anaerobic threshold training.   Repetition training aims at   developing the pace consciousness of the athlete while pace-surging training involves alternating steady-pace runs with surges r bursts off speed running.   This helps him to be able to adjust to the shifts in the pace during a competition. All these components of his training are also aimed at increasing his endurance by lowering the rate at which lactate acid builds up and enhancing oxygen transportation. The exercises have the effect of increasing his metabolism to higher levels than that of the average human being. A weekly work out for Erick would be as follows, on a Monday he performs 20 minutes of aerobic threshold training run, followed by build ups and a period of cool-down.   On Tuesday he does an easy run of the 3000 metre race.   On Wednesday he does negative split runs four times, after which he does build-ups.   When doing the negative split run, he starts with five minutes warm up that involves walking briskly and jogging lightly. He then   runs at a moderate pace for ten minutes and increase his pace over the next ten minutes then he cools down for five minutes.   (http://outside.away.com/outside/fracture/2000609/negative-split-workout.html).   On Thursdays he does five repetitions of the actual race pace but that have been broken down to 900metre races.   Erick does the easy run and practices accelerations which means he is practising to increase his speed on Fridays.   On Saturdays he does his best average speed for the race in 1000metre intervals then on Sundays he does a long run. His training schedule sometimes changes by the week especially if a competition is close but with basically the same activities though at different frequencies and intervals. Daily Diet Breakfast 2 slices whole wheat toast Grape fruit 1 poached egg 1 tsp butter or vegetable margarine or honey Lunch 1 cup clear vegetable soup sprinkled with fresh herbs Brown rice 1 cup beans Green salad in season Dinner 2 slices meat steaks with vegetable Crisp bread 25g cottage cheese with fresh herbs 75g fresh fruit salad Snacks 1 cup apple juice, canned  ½ cup raw black berries 1 piece fruit cake 3 fig bar cookies Crackles regular wheat  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (USDA, 2005) The B complex vitamins are important for an endurance athlete especially because they have increased needs for vitamins due to the higher metabolism rates that are above the normal population.   The B complex vitamins are also involved in formation of red blood cells.   If deficient, red blood cells formation is compromised leading to fewer or poorly formed red blood cells resulting in decreased capacity for oxygen transportation which would compromise the endurance of the athlete (Moore, 2004) Deficiencies of the B complex vitamin may result in decreased capacity for endurance.   Vitamin B6 takes part in different processes of metabolism involving proteins and glycogen.   A high protein diet will thus result in increased need for vitamin B6.   Vitamin B12 is necessary for the formation of red blood cells and is also important to ensure their normal functioning.   Folic acid is also a requirement for red blood cell formation and metabolism of amino acids (Moore, 2004). References Rogers J, 2000 USA Track and Field Coaching Manual, Human Kinetics, ISBN 0880116048 Moore J, 2004 Vitamins, USMS retrieved from http://www.usms.org/articles/articledispaly.php?a=77 USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20   

The Intersectionality Of Race And Sex - 1844 Words

Dashanna Cooke Mr. Jones ENGL 110AQ 3/19/2017 The Intersectionality of Race and Sex in How to Make Love to a Negro Without Getting Tired Dany Laferrià ¨re was born Windsor Klà ©ber Laferrià ¨re in Port-au-Prince, Haiti on April 13, 1953. His father, the mayor of Port-au-Prince and under-secretary of state for trade, was forced into exile which left Laferrià ¨re and his mother. Fearing reprisals, Laferrià ¨re’s mother entrusted her four-year-old son to his grandmother at the Haitian seaside town of Petit-Goave. Laferrià ¨re, who grew up during the Duvalier regime, became a journalist and a radio broadcaster. In 1976 after the assassination of his colleague, with whom he was working on a story with, Laferrià ¨re fled Haiti and immigrated to Canada after†¦show more content†¦We see the world outside the apartment from the narrator’s wanderings through the streets of Montrà ©al. The unidentified narrator is writing a novel about his experiences with hopes that it would lead to him having fame and fortune. How to Make Love revisits the subjects of history, race, slavery, racism, class, and the definition of what constitutes a Negro. The title of the novel itself explores the way the Western world stereotypes the black man’s body as a sexual object, both terrible and mesmerizing in its animal-like savagery. Laferrià ¨re’s novel, How to Make Love to a Negro without Getting Tired, approaches the thematic exploration of racial and sexual tension, exclusion and alienation, class consciousness, and the multiplicity of exploitation. Laferrià ¨re draws an intersection of race and sexuality through satirical humor and pushing it to its absurd and comical consequences. The narrator is aware of the sexual stereotypes that are unconsciously labeled on him as with the almost self-righteous, obsession that white women seem to be fascinated by him, but he does not necessarily condemn nor shy away from these stereotypes. On certain occasions, it seems like the narrator revels in being seen as something exotic to the white McGill girls that he chases. In a particular passage, the narrator basks in the act of political rebellion he seems to be committing by sleeping with white women. AsShow MoreRelatedIntersectionality Essay727 Words   |  3 PagesI will try to explain intersectionality. First of all you need to know what intersectionality is. Intersectionality is a theoretical framework which explains violence or discrimination against humans. Now I will give you an example and then try to connect it to intersectionality. I will use an example of spider web to explain this theory. This example will give you some idea about intersectionality. Think about a spider web. A Point in the centre and all threads connected to each other. If we removeRead MoreA Woman s Experience With The Law Essay1416 Words   |  6 Pagesdimensions of â€Å"race, class, gender and sexuality†¦ in relation to their struggle against racial, sexual, sexual orientation and class oppr ession† (Lockhart Mitchell, 2010, p.7). Law and legal processes hardly examine other characteristics of women because these institutions are centred on â€Å"objectivity and universalism† (Marchetti, 2008, p.156); only one characteristic or experience is examined to determine the outcome of a case. The objective of this essay is to explore the intersectionality of womenRead MoreThe Intersection Of Race And Sex1329 Words   |  6 PagesIntersectionality is defined by social categories, such as race and gender that have interconnected to apply to individuals and groups, causing an overlap, which has consequently created a system of discrimination and disadvantages (English Oxford Living Dictionary, 2016). Kimberle Crenshaw coined the term in her article ‘Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Anti-racist Politics’ (1889) whereby her main focusRead MoreGender Inequality And Racial Inequality Essay924 Words   |  4 Pagesand intertwined, each other creating complex interactions and a negative influence upon society. In the 1980s, Kimberle Williams Crenshaw through her article, named Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color, introduced the term â€Å"Intersectionality.† Intersectionality, is the theory of how different types of discriminations interact thus, goes hand in hand with Judith Butler, in her article titled â€Å"Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An EssayRead MoreFeminism And The World Of The 2016 Election884 Words   |  4 PagesFeminism and Intersectionality are at the forefront of the 2016 election. W hile feminism is still viewed in somewhat limited terms of promoting the equality and status of women, Intersectionality is defined in much broader language, as the interconnection of race, gender, ability, and class in the social world. Moreover, all of these intersecting categories overlap and cannot be separated. Thus, the traditional view of feminism, that promotes the equality of women first and foremost, is often pittedRead MoreThe Theory Of Intersectionality And Gender Inequality1238 Words   |  5 PagesThe theory of intersectionality has received a widespread of various distinct definitions and usage; it is often unclear of its designed function may be. Intersectionality is defined as â€Å"the acknowledgment that different forms of identity-based discrimination can combine to give rise to unique brands of injustice†(Lucas 8). In other words, how the classification of one’s individuality such as gender, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, and class can intert wine with each other among the social structureRead MoreA Critique Of The New Policies On Elite Female Athletes1152 Words   |  5 Pages -policies of sex-testing are intended for women with high androgen levels (hyperandrogenism) -there is a focus on the testosterone hormone since it is presumed that women who have a high level of testosterone have an unfair advantage against other women. -women known or suspected to have hyperandrogenism would be allowed to compete only if they agreed to medical intervention or if they were found to be â€Å"insensitive† to androgens. -Caster Semenya who won the women s 800 meter race was questionedRead MoreGender Inequality And Racial Prejudice1130 Words   |  5 PagesTraditionally, most of these rigid views have supported the dominance of men and the subservience of women in most social structures. In her article entitled: Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color, Kimberle Williams Crenshaw introduced the term â€Å"Intersectionality.† Intersectionality is the theory that different types of discriminations interact with one another. This notion goes hand in hand with Judith Butler’s ideas described her article titled â€Å"PerformativeRead MoreStudent Dress Code Essay1134 Words   |  5 Pagesnegative way. The superintended of this high school has enforced this new dress code to improve the learning environment for all students. This goal of this body positive environment is to allow every student to be treated equally no matter what their race, sex, gender identity, culture or body type is (Heller, 2017). Evanston Township High School does not forbid specific fits or style of clothing or humiliate those who express themselves through their clothing. However, there are still some restrictionsRead MoreFeminism And The Second Wave Feminist Movement1473 Words   |  6 PagesIntersectionality underscores that it is impossible to consider gender in isolation from other forms of difference. Critically discuss the significance of this, including its implications for feminism. Refer to at least 3 readings in the unit read from weeks 1-6. Intersectionality provides a key structure for analysing oppression and privilege in our modern and diverse society. Views of intersectionality have changed rapidly throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Many aspects of the

The One Best Method You Should Be Using for Research Paper Writing Services Revealed

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Causes Of The Cold War - 1108 Words

The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union spanned almost half of a century. It led to worldwide fears and anxiety over the possibility of nuclear war and the desolation of mankind. It led to various proxy wars, costing the lives of millions in foreign nations and thousands of American and Soviet soldiers. With so much fear, death, money, and willpower going into the conflict, there must be an easy answer as to what force caused and drove the conflict. However, this topic is not met with consensus. From the onset of the Cold War to the modern day historians continue to debate over what the origin of the Cold War was. There are three major proposed causes of the Cold War: economic, ideological, and geopolitical. Noam†¦show more content†¦They focus on how business interests and bureaucratic elite affect U.S. foreign policy for their benefit. Historians who identify U.S. economic interests as the origin of the Cold War normally make two similar yet distinct ar guments. Noam Chomsky argues that the U.S. involvement in the Cold War was meant to control the vast resources in Eurasian nations, more specifically the middle east. For this reason, he describes the U.S. crusade as a â€Å"crusade against independent development outside of the structure of the global system of exploitation organized under the umbrella of U.S. power after World War II.† One in which foreign policy decisions were not made to promote foreign nations democracy and economy. Instead, Chomsky writes: â€Å"the U.S. ‘dilemma†¦involved Western European capitalist nations rather than Russia.’† Chomsky explains that the civil war in Greece and the fall of Turkey were used by the U.S. to generate foreign policy theories, such as containment, that promoted the interests of the business elite in the U.S.. Such policies allowed the U.S. to intervene and gain control over nations that they believed were susceptible to Soviet expansion. In doing so, the U.S. put themselves in a prime position to exploit Eurasian resources. Chomsky furthers that by labeling the Soviet Union as an existential threat to American freedoms the government was able mobilize support forShow MoreRelatedCauses Of The Cold War1716 Words   |  7 PagesThe Cold War, a conflict between the United States and Soviet Union, the two global superpowers at the time. Given the name â€Å"Cold War† only for the fact that neither the Soviet Union nor the United States fought directly with one another, instead the war was waged through allies in the form of proxy wars and through increased use of intensive espionage, a never-ending arms race, immense technological competition and on a political forefront as both sides tried to gain the upper hand. The Cold WarRead MoreCauses Of The Cold War1388 Words   |  6 PagesLESSON 26 - The Cold War Objectives: Identify the causes for the start of the Cold War Identify key actions taken by the US and the Soviet Union to prepare for war Identify how the Cold War impacted American lifestyle Identify actions taken worldwide between the Cold War combatants The Cold War Begins The Cold War was the state of hostility, without direct military confrontation, between the United States and the Soviet Union. The formation of the United Nations (UN) in 1945Read MoreCauses And Effects Of The Cold War1370 Words   |  6 PagesAbi Amarnath Mrs. Saunders 12 November 2014 English II Causes and Effects of the Cold War Richard Nixon once said of the Cold War that â€Å"the Cold War isn t thawing; it is burning with a deadly heat. Communism isn t sleeping; it is, as always, plotting, scheming, working, fighting.†(www.brainyquote.com). 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Study of Conselling Samples for Students †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Case Study of Conselling Answer: Introduction Counseling approaches are techniques that provide a framework for counselors and therapists to listen, understand and analyses clients behavior, related feelings, clients thoughts and behavior to help them understand clients behavioral journey from diagnosis to post-treatment stage. The approaches are an integral part of the therapeutic process that is classified in many different methods and each fit a certain behavior. These approaches are structured in a way that they help the therapist to develop their skills and help clients as its their main goal in their career. The counseling process is done in sessions conducted in varying durations depending on age. Initially, in the case of an adult therapeutic process, a session cannot go for more than two hours and for a teenager, not more than 45 minutes and below. The sessions are meant to help understand the issues affecting the client and help get a solution to help the client move on without many issues. Rebecca as a young adult is unemployed and the situation to which her jobless case presents itself is in the context of self-denial and withdrawal from her normal behavior, poor relationship terms and despondency about her future goals. There are various counseling approaches that can be used to deal with Rebeccas case to help find a probable solution. Two of the many approaches are; Cognitive and behavioral therapy approach and humanistic therapy approach. The counseling process is influenced by different factors that are meant to enhance results. The steps and procedure involved during the intervention process are according to the therapeutic set strategies and rules of counseling but are discussed or led to the client before the process begins (PENNINGTON, 2013). The role of deciding what steps to be followed is done by the counselor but after the client has agreed and given her consent. The counselor also gives guidelines and options to help solve the clients problem but the decisions on the possible solution are done by the client herself. Before administering any issue related to the client's problem, the counselor has to set an appropriate environment, favorable conditions that fit the theme of counseling as well as develop means for creation of rapport. Importance of creating a safe environment during one to one interview Enhance concentration of the client. A clients divided attention during the one to one interview may result in misunderstanding and even at times interpersonal conflicts where the client or the counselor cannot come to times with the information being given. to enhance this counselor clients concentration, I would ensure that the environment I have chosen is free from noise and other destructing factors. Also ensuring that the specific location of the interview is in line with the clients beliefs and values to prevent biases. Example, if a client doesn't believe in cults, she cannot be taken to cultic places as it might destruct her concentration during the interview. To ensure openness. A proper environment ensures that the client is able to speak out without fear and in the right manner as its stipulated in the counseling rule (SINGH, 2012)s. in this case, Rebeccas condition is vital and has even made her withdraw from her normal behaviors and relationships that had been there before and if placed in a place with no privacy, it might be hard for her to feel free and speak out all her problems as well as worries. Example, in this case, I would ensure that the interview environment is not secluded but not in an open area where everyone passing by wishes to pass her or his point by causing destructions. Influence a good outcome of the therapeutic process. Its always said that the first impression of a certain objective and activity in most cases influences the perception and outcome of the whole process. If the client, in this case, Rebecca who is a young adult, honesty and straight forwardness, as well as clarity, is very important to ensure that what the clients perceive in the first instance do not negatively affect the whole process. Example, ensuring tidiness and proper planning of the surrounding, in this case, is very important to ensure the clients observation attitude is enhanced. Being in a well-organized area means that the client may develop trust in the first instance as she believes the counselor is a good planner. Good planners are good managers and hence good controllers of attitudes that they believe are right. Importance of body language during one to one interview There are various body languages that are expressed during a one to one interview. This is mainly enhanced to pass particular information that may or may not be passed verbally. Some of this body languages and their importance include the following; Trustworthy or untrustworthy. This is a factor that is mainly observed through eye contact. Observing eye contact with the interviewer shows that the client is attentive and at high chances, he believes or trusts the interview with the information she will pass through. Staring at the interviewer so much executes that the client do not trust what the interviewer is passing and in return, the client cannot completely trust the interviewer. A smile on both the interviewer and the clients shows that both are anxious to engage in a rightful conversation with an aim that the conversation will bear good fruits. It also illustrates openness and sense of honesty as the client is able to understand that the interviewee is positive and direct to access information that would be of great importance. A sign of either agreeing or disagreeing with either of the statements given. Example, nodding of head elaborates either agreeing or disagreeing with the interviewer. Feeling of disappointment. In cases where the client is disappointed or her feelings are compromised by the interviewer, she may respond by showing a changed face like frowning or triggering bad face shapes. Lack of concentration. An example is finger fidgeting that showcases that the client is not concentrating, distracted or even bored in the process and needs time to relax or help to get back on the track. Conditions that could have an adverse impact on interactions These are factors or situations that would have negative effects on the interactions between the client and the interviewer. Some of these factors include; Low self-esteem. Due to unemployment and lack of self-believe that though there is no employment life still goes on and it will get better, the client may devalue herself to an extent that she only talks negative about herself and whatever surrounds her (LAPWORTH SILLS, 2010). This would diverse the main intentions of the interview that is meant to help establish ways to help solve the problem affecting her. Mental disorientation. This is a situation where a person appears to be fine but in the real state, her mental capacity is not okay due to depression, fatigue as well as a mental imbalance. This is a dilemma and the worst form of losing focus as only the only way to correct it is by correcting one's state of belief and personal evaluation. Rebecca withdrawing even from her family relationship status and from her behaviors and later becoming despondent about her future was as a result of hopelessness and the only way to correct this is by rebuilding oneself to start believing you can again and everything is possible. Role of contracting and negotiating skills Negotiation skills are important to help prepare the client for the processes ahead, her role, the cost and resources to be used to enhance the success of the process depending on the intensity of the issue. Active listening. The skills of contraction and negotiation are very important in addressing the service user expectations as it enhances the client to actively participate in the process and listen carefully to the service provider (MACKENZIE, 2010). This also ensures that the client is able to identify any compromising situation that may occur and also identify ways of preventing it. Cost consciousness. If there is a cost involved in the procedure to offer services, contracting skills are important as they work together with the negotiation skills to help the client make a deal on only what she can afford. Example, in counseling therapeutic services, contract services are agreed upon by the client and the therapist through the negotiation of the contract to be signed for service delivery. Emotional control. in the process of negotiation, the client with the negotiation skills is able to keep check of her emotions during the negotiation process as it may not be favorable and requires one to set basis through negotiations. Specific interviewing skills These are principles that are enhanced during the process of the interview by the interviewer. Some of these include; Adequate preparation for the interview (ROSS, NILSEN, 2013). A good preparation for any interview enhances its success. this ensures that there is no much time wasted on the day and time for the interviews. It also helps increase one courage as due preparation involves research thus reduced embarrassment cases. Specific interview objectives. This ensures that there is a distinction between the general objectives of any given interview and specific objectives for a certain interview to help prevent biases during the process. Creation of rapport. This is a process of establishing a temporary relationship with the client to help gain her trust that is vital in the process. This is done by mainly identifying some common or basic factor of a given category of people depending on the type of interview to take place. It ensures that there is the trust created between the client and the interviewer and it's very important to enhance the interview outcomes. This involves the interviewer to develop a well-written structure of the interview proceedings and development that is vital to ensure that no wastage of any production factor is wasted (RODRI?GUEZ, FRANCE, HETT, 2013). May it be resources, time or even other efforts Making notes. This involves the interviewer to prepare the proper environment where he can be able to take notes to ensure that all information given by the interviewee is recorded to prevent misunderstanding and also keep data that can be referred from time to time in reference to the line of the interview being carried out. Key features of counseling approaches used Cognitive and behavioral therapy approach; these are therapy approaches and work together on the basis of how one thinks and behaves. It's an important approach and illustrates that its possible to change or recondition our thoughts or way we conduct ourselves to help overcome specific problems. The key features of this approach are; acceptance where the client has to first accept she has the problem, try to evaluate the problem in mind and think about it, its consequences and later come to thinking and perception that it's possible. Advantages Ensures that the client understands the sources or the possible cause of the situation she is in and also accept that she has a problem. Rebecca, in this case, is able to understand that her main problem is unemployment. Helps the client to understand that one's perception of self-believe starts in the mind and it's very important. Rebecca loss of despondent in her future is not a threat as she is able to understand how she can restore her believe. Disadvantages Its not easy to administer and cannot be helpful to all individuals with cognitive issues. in this case, there is no assurance that the approach will impact to solve Rebeccas problems. Humanistic therapy approach This is a therapeutic technique that focuses on self-development and growth as one carries out her responsibilities (KWAN, 2016).The platform helps those with such problems to identify their strengths and choices here and now. The main features include; reality therapy where the client has to face reality, solution focused therapy where one should be ready to get a solution to her problem. Transpersonal therapy where the change starts in oneself. Advantages Helps one to understand that everything is possible and it's all structured in the mind. Rebecca knew that her past experiences will not determine her future and so she should pick up the pieces and move on. Disadvantages It's not a guarantee that all we passive in the mind and attempt to do will be a success. Influencing Rebecca to be positive and change her mind that she will stand strong again is not easy. Conclusion Counseling in every given society is very important and should be administered by specialized as its a technical and varying framework that changes depending on the problem at hand. Approaches used in counseling to help one identify their weak points and help them realize their abilities. All interviews are very important and should enhance self-advancement as they support the creation of courage personal development. References DASH, R. K. (2016). Professional learner's dictionary of spoken english. [Place of publication not identified], Prentice-Hall Of India. FRENCH, R. (2015). How to get a good job after 50: a step-by-step guide to job search success. Wollombi, Exisle Publishing. https://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=2011956. KWAN, S. S.-M. (2016). Negotiating a Presence-Centred Christian Counselling: Towards a Theologically Informed and Culturally Sensitive Approach. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. https://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=4535233. LAPWORTH, P., SILLS, C. (2010). Integration in counselling psychotherapy. Los Angeles, SAGE. MEHTA, K., KO, H. (2014). Gerontological counselling: an introductory book. MACKENZIE, I. E. (2010). English for business studies: a course for business studies and economics students. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. PENNINGTON, A. (2013). The student guide to counselling psychotherapy approaches. https://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=1046532. RODRI?GUEZ, M. D. C., FRANCE, H., HETT, G. (2013). Diversity, culture and counselling: a Canadian perspective. Calgary, Brush Education. ROSS, C. S., NILSEN, K. (2013). Communicating professionally: a how-to-do-it manual. SINGH, O. P. (2012). Art of effective communication in group discussion and interview. New Delhi, S Chand. TASMAN, A., KAY, J., LIEBERMAN, J. A., FIRST, M. B., RIBA, M. B. (2014). Psychiatry. WIEGAND, H. E., MU?LLER, C. (2014). Handbu?cher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft an international handbook on multimodality in human interaction / ed. by Cornelia Mu?ller ... 38 Vol. 2 38 Vol. 2. Berlin [u.a.], de Gruyte